Artificial intelligence is one of the most advanced and widely used technologies in various scientific and industrial fields, which is widely used in various industries due to its capabilities. In the meantime, the oil and gas industry is also one of the industries that using artificial intelligence can help to improve and increase productivity in various processes and activities of this industry. One of the main applications of artificial intelligence in the oil and gas industry is forecasting and data analysis. With the help of artificial intelligence algorithms, it is possible to analyze information related to oil and gas reservoirs in a more accurate and reliable manner and make better decisions for production from these reservoirs. Through data analysis, it is possible to improve the quality and achieve zero error. Also, artificial intelligence helps with intelligent decision-making and control in automation processes in the oil and gas industry. By using artificial intelligence systems, the processes of production, drilling, transportation, refining and sale of oil and gas can be performed automatically and with higher quality. This work reduces errors and costs and increases productivity and efficiency in the oil and gas industry.

As interest in environmental issues grows, regulations on the Global Warming Potential (GWP) of refrigerants are becoming increasingly stringent [1], driving the demand for Low GWP alternatives. [2] Engine-driven heat pumps are also gaining attention as an effective technology to mitigate winter power peaks due to their lower electricity consumption compared to electricity-driven heat pumps. [3]

This study analyzes the performance improvement of an engine-driven heat pump using low-GWP refrigerants by adopting waste heat recovery mode and evaluates the applicability of alternative refrigerants. A cycle simulation program was developed to obtain the performance characteristic data of the engine-driven heat pump. R32, R452B and R466A were selected as Low GWP refrigerants for comparison with R410A, which was used as the baseline refrigerant.

The design parameters of engine-driven heat pump were determined to deliver the same heating capacity at identical evaporating and condensing temperature conditions without waste heat utilization. Performance simulations were conducted by varying the amount of waste heat recovered from the engine, while maintaining a constant heating capacity.

As the amount of waste heat increased, compressor power consumption decreased. The power consumption decrease was most significant in the order of R410A, R32, R452B and R466A. Furthermore, with 10 kW of waste heat, the coefficient of performance (COP) of engine driven heat pumps were improved by 1.7% and 2.3% using R32 and R452B compared to the COP using R410A. On the other hand, the COP using R466A was decreased by 3.2%.

Paleontological data,  particularly derived from microfossils such as foraminifera, are crucial in biostratigraphy, paleoenvironmental reconstructions, and hydrocarbon exploration. Fossils provide high-resolution chronostratigraphic markers and act as sensitive proxies for depositional environments, recording changes in paleoceanographic conditions and diagenetic processes in sedimentary basins, which are essential factors in identifying potential petroleum systems.  The mineralogical composition of bioclasts -calcite, aragonite, or phosphate-makes them sensitive to taphonomic alteration and diagenetic changes such temperature, pressure, and pore fluid chemistry, serving as indirect indicators of subsurface thermal maturity and potential hydrocarbon generation zones. 

The quality of reservoir rocks often correlates with the taphonomy and morphometry of the microfossils present in the deposits. By example, large benthic foraminifera, characterized by coarse, perforated, robust, well-calcified test, are commonly associated with high-energy, high-porosity, and high-permeability facies, shallow marine environments, and, consequently, good reservoir quality. On the other hand, fine-grained assemblages dominated by small, fragile or agglutinated tests, densely packed may indicate tight, low-energy, low-porosity, and low-permeability zones, often reflecting distal or deeper depositional settings. 

Furthermore, advances in geochemical and isotopic proxies (δ¹³C, δ¹⁸O, Sr/Ca) from foraminiferal tests provide improved resolution in paleoenvironmental interpretations, including kay parameters as salinity, productivity, thermal gradients, and others, refining sequence stratigraphy and reservoir prediction models. In summary, integrating morphogroup analysis, taphonomic signatures, and geochemical data offers a powerful, multidimensional approach to refining the stratigraphic framework, guiding drilling strategies, and improving the characterization of heterogeneities in oil reservoirs, particularly in complex depositional settings such as mixed siliciclastic-carbonate systems. 

Geoscientists perform a central role in strategic phases of hydrocarbon exploration and development, acting as surface interpreters based on an integrated analysis of sedimentological, stratigraphic, structural, and geophysical data. The success of the exploratory campaigns is directly related to the geological knowledge applied during the delineation of prospective targets and the location of the initial exploration well, as well as to the planning and optimization of the delineation, influencing drilling success rates and reducing exploratory risk and cost. 

This paper explores the scientific responsibilities of geologists in hydrocarbon prospecting, emphasizing the importance of integration of biostratigraphy, basin modeling, and reservoir characterization. Likewise, technological advances such as machine learning, seismic inversion and high-resolution stratigraphy are redefining how geologists contribute to reserve estimation and field development strategies. 

Considering the global energy contexts with the current energy transition landscape, where exploration efficiency, environmental responsibility, and resource maximization are essential, geologists assume an even more strategic role in enabling data-driven, low-carbon exploration models. The presence of geologists throughout the drilling process-exploratory, appraisal, and development phases-not only ensures optimal well placement but also enables real-time decision-making critical to operational and economic success. 

​This study presents an innovative approach to enhancing power-to-gas (P2G) systems by integrating high-temperature solid oxide electrolysis (SOE) with molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) for efficient CO₂ capture in power plants. The proposed hybrid system aims to improve energy efficiency and reduce carbon emissions, addressing critical challenges in sustainable energy production.​

High-Temperature Electrolysis and Energy Efficiency

High-temperature electrolysis, particularly through solid oxide electrolyzer cells (SOECs), offers significant advantages over low-temperature methods. Operating at elevated temperatures (700–800 °C), SOECs facilitate more efficient water splitting, resulting in lower electricity consumption per unit of hydrogen produced. This efficiency stems from the favorable thermodynamics at higher temperatures, which reduce the electrical energy required for the electrolysis process. ​

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells for CO₂ Capture

MCFCs operate at approximately 650 °C and are capable of internal reforming, allowing them to utilize fuels like natural gas directly. A notable feature of MCFCs is their ability to capture CO₂ from flue gases. In this system, flue gas is mixed with air and introduced to the MCFC, where CO₂ is transferred from the cathode to the anode side, effectively separating it from other gases. Experimental studies have demonstrated that CO₂ separation rates exceeding 90% are achievable by adjusting the cathode inlet flow.

Integration of SOEC and MCFC in P2G Systems

The integration of SOEC and MCFC technologies within a P2G framework offers multiple benefits:​

Enhanced Energy Efficiency: The synergy between SOECs and MCFCs leads to improved overall system efficiency. The waste heat generated by the MCFC can be utilized to maintain the high operating temperatures required by the SOEC, creating a thermally integrated system that minimizes energy losses.​

Effective CO₂ Utilization: The CO₂ captured by the MCFC can be recycled and used in the methanation process to produce synthetic natural gas (SNG). This not only reduces greenhouse gas emissions but also contributes to the production of valuable fuels, aligning with carbon capture and utilization (CCU) strategies.​

Modular and Scalable Design: The proposed system's design is straightforward and compact, allowing for modular implementation. This modularity facilitates scalability, enabling the system to be adapted for various applications, from small-scale industrial settings to larger power plants.​

Thermal Management and System Optimization

Effective thermal management is crucial for the optimal performance of the integrated system. All components operate at elevated temperatures: the Sabatier reactor at 300 °C, the MCFC at 650 °C, and the SOEC at 700–800 °C. Proper integration ensures that the heat generated by the MCFC and the exothermic methanation reaction in the Sabatier reactor is effectively utilized to sustain the SOEC's operating temperature. This internal heat exchange reduces the need for external heating sources, thereby enhancing the system's overall efficiency.​

Environmental and Economic Implications

The adoption of this hybrid system has significant environmental and economic implications:​

Reduction in CO₂ Emissions: By capturing and utilizing CO₂, the system contributes to lowering greenhouse gas emissions from power plants, aiding in the mitigation of climate change.​

Cost-Effective Hydrogen Production: The improved efficiency of high-temperature electrolysis reduces the electricity required for hydrogen production by approximately 25%, leading to cost savings and making the process more economically viable.​

Production of Synthetic Fuels: The system enables the production of SNG, which can be injected into existing natural gas infrastructure, providing a renewable energy source and enhancing energy security.​

Challenges and Future Directions

While the proposed system offers numerous advantages, several challenges need to be addressed:​

Material Durability: The high operating temperatures necessitate the use of materials that can withstand thermal stress and corrosion over extended periods. Ongoing research focuses on developing and testing materials that meet these stringent requirements.​

System Integration: Achieving seamless integration of SOECs and MCFCs requires careful design and control strategies to manage the interactions between components and ensure stable operation.​

Economic Viability: While the system has the potential for cost savings, initial capital investment and maintenance costs must be considered. Economic analyses and pilot projects are essential to demonstrate the system's commercial feasibility.​

Conclusion

The integration of solid oxide electrolysis cells and molten carbonate fuel cells presents a promising pathway for enhancing P2G systems. By improving energy efficiency, enabling effective CO₂ capture, and facilitating the production of synthetic fuels, this hybrid system addresses key challenges in sustainable energy production. Further research and development efforts are necessary to overcome existing challenges and realize the full potential of this innovative approach.

A formation is a set of layers that have a specific lithological composition and spread and extend over a relatively wide area. By examining sediments and deposits, geologists find out the sedimentary environment. The formation boundaries with the lower and upper layers is clearly defined. The top and bottom of a formation is defined, but its thickness has no definite limit. The junction of each formation with its upper and lower formations is called formation boundary. This border can be in different forms. Specific and sudden boundaries, gradual, discontinuity, between fingers, etc. make all kinds of boundaries of formations. In any case, the boundaries of the formations are clear and distinguishable from their upper and lower formations, whatever their state. When two adjacent formations cannot be separated due to their similarities, they can be named together. In this paper, determining the boundary of a geological formation in a sedimentary basin will be discussed. 

Factors affecting erosion in geological formations include internal and external factors. Internal factors include the characteristics of the rocks themselves, such as their strength and discontinuities, and external factors include climate, vegetation, slope, and weathering processes. In addition, the type of lithology of the region plays an important role in erosion. Some rocks are easily eroded and others are more resistant. For example, in areas with limestone, chemical erosion is greater than mechanical erosion due to the high solubility of lime. While in areas with sedimentary rocks, mechanical erosion plays a more important role. The behavior of different rocks against erosion is different and some lithological units are sensitive to erosion and prone to produce sediment. The behavior of Quaternary rocks and deposits against weathering and erosion depends on several factors, some of which are related to the nature of the rock and other factors related to the external environment including the rock.

The formation of heavy oil in a reservoir rock is influenced by many factors, including temperature, pressure, and the type and composition of hydrocarbons. Factors such as temperature and pressure can drive hydrocarbons to heavier weights, while hydrocarbon composition and reservoir rock type can also affect oil density and migration. Increased pressure can push hydrocarbons toward heavier molecules, thus accelerating the formation of heavy oil. The presence of heavier and carbon-rich hydrocarbons alone can contribute to the formation of heavy oil. Some reservoir rocks, such as sandstone and limestone, are more suitable for heavy oil accumulation due to their permeability and ability to pass heavier hydrocarbons. The processes of primary and secondary migration of hydrocarbons, in which oil and gas move from the source rock to the reservoir rock and accumulate there, play an important role in the formation of heavy oil too. In this paper, we will discuss about factors related to the formation of heavy oil in a reservoir rock.

Foam injection can be used to change the wettability of the reservoir rock, especially in reservoirs with a high degree of heterogeneity where gas injection is associated with problems. Foam can help the production of residual oil in the matrix by reducing the surface tension, changing the wettability of the rock and directing the surfactant solution towards the matrix. Based on the main goal of foam injection and the characteristics of the reservoir fluid and rock, it is necessary to design its structure and type. Among the other important mechanisms that have a great effect on the increase of oil recovery using foam, it is possible to change the wettability of the reservoir rock. Foam injection in carbonate reservoirs to change reservoir rock wettability is one of the effective methods to increase oil recovery. In this regard, the use of additives such as nanoparticles in order to improve the quality and stability of the foam can lead to positive effects of the properties of reservoir rocks and fluids.

In recent years, the increase in oil consumption has caused a strong need to improve the technologies of enhanced oil recovery. One of the common methods for enhanced oil recovery is the gas injection method. However, when gas is injected into the reservoir, problems such as gravity rise due to the low density of gas compared to oil and the high mobility of gas compared to oil reduce the efficiency of this method. Foam can improve mobility and increasing oil recovery by reducing gas permeability. Today, for foam stability, polymers are added to the solution containing foam. In injecting water into the reservoir, adding polymer to the injection water increases the viscosity of the injection water and the mobility ratio of water to oil also decreases. As a result, the sweeping operation is done better and the efficiency of oil production increases. It's better to use polymers that have dual properties, so, in addition to regulating the mobility of water, they create foam and limit the mobility of gas.

One of the methods that has recently received attention in oil recovery and the topics of increased extraction is foam injection in the tank, which partially improves the defects of the mixed and non-mixed gas injection method and leads to more oil recovery. Based on the main goal of foam injection and the characteristics of the reservoir fluid and rock, it is necessary to design its structure and type. One of the most important parts of these designs is choosing the appropriate surfactant. Foam injection can be done with the aim of delivering the surfactant to the oil inside the matrix and reducing the surface tension between the gas and oil. In this case, with the reduction of capillary forces, the existing balance between capillary and gravity forces will be more in favor of gravity forces, oil recovery will be increased. In this paper, oam Injection into an oil carbonate reservoir to increase the viscous forces against the capillary forces will be discussed.

Foam injection is used in oil reservoir to reduce surface tension between gas and oil and also between water and oil. Foam is an intermediate state between gas and liquid that can reduce surface tension and thus increase oil production. This method is usually used for reservoirs with heterogeneities in reservoir rock properties or fractured reservoirs, where gas injection alone is problematic. Foam injection can be done with the aim of delivering the surfactant to the oil inside the matrix and reducing the surface tension between the gas and oil. In this case, with the reduction of capillary forces, the existing balance between capillary and gravity forces will be more in favor of gravity forces, oil recovery will be increased. This method reduces surface tension on the liquid surface and improves gas flow in non-homogeneous areas in an oil reservoir. Foam injection causes uniform displacement of the fluids in the reservoir and prevents the occurrence of fingering.

The phenomenon of formation damage refers to any harmful process that, by affecting the reservoir formation especially the reservoir rock permeability, reduces the production capability of an oil or gas well or the injection capability of a well compared to its natural state. Therefore, formation damage is an undesirable phenomenon that, if it occurs, can cause many operational problems and economic losses. Reduction in production rate or flow rate of oil and gas from the well, reduction in the rate of water and gas injection into the formation, increase in pressure drop as a result of production and shortening of the life of the reservoir, and finally reduction of hydrocarbon reserves, which can be produced with economic efficiency, are all effects of formation damage. But it should be seen how severe these effects are and whether their effect on the performance of the reservoir and well is significant? In fact, the severity of damage to the formation depends on factors such as the type of damage and the method of completing the well, which we will discuss further in this paper.

More than 190 nations have committed to limiting global warming to below 2°C by reducing greenhouse gas emissions (UNFCCC), signing the Paris Agreement. Recent conferences (COP28 and COP29) have focused on renewable energy transitions, carbon markets, and climate finance (WRI). Solar, wind and hydropower represent more than 30% of new global power capacity to reduce the dependence on fossil fuels (IEA) and advance in green hydrogen, carbon capture and battery storage, which offer promising cleaner energy solutions (WEF) with significant investment in fusion energy research to unlock unlimited clean energy. However, the actual technical solutions are still deficient in the social, business and effectiveness areas because respectively the populations perceive them as a burden imposed from above rather than a consumer-led change imposed at their expense, the shift to green energy remains unprofitable without government incentives and trigger geopolitical tensions to secure critical resources, and current technologies are only “half green” and do not achieve their intended goals. In the field of green energy, the H₂ technology still represents an obstacle in terms of competitiveness, lack of infrastructure, distribution and storage risks because of high pressure and low temperature conditions, uncompetitive price, investment risks and regulatory issues. In particular, the gray H₂ (95%) is obtained from steam methane reforming (SMR) with CO and CO₂ production without the possibility of carbon capture, while the blu H₂ (3-4%) is also obtained from SMR, but thanks to Carbon Capture Storage system, the emissions of CO₂ can be reduced (56-90%) however not completely cancelled. The green H₂ represent the only sustainable option because obtained exclusively from renewable sources such as wind, solar, and hydropower that support the electrolysis of water. The current global cost of green hydrogen ranges between 3 and 7 USD/kgH_2, is deemed acceptable only for certain applications, such as in the power-to-liquids (PtL) industry and transportation sector [2]. Thus, to be economically viable for commercial and residential use, the price per kilogram should be below approximately 2 USD/kgH₂ [2]. On this basis, Sedes H Company is successfully developing a new solution capable of producing massive green H₂ from renewable energy with low cost (1E/Kg) because using existing infrastructures and in a safe way, because green H₂ can be stored and distributed at 1 atm pressure and ambient temperature [4]. The so-called “Sedes H ecosystem” is mainly composed of an organic photovoltaic (OPV) paint, composed of conjugated polymers and/or molecules capable of generating electricity from the sun [3], whose excess could be used to power an electrolytic cell for green H₂ development [4]. The green H₂ so product could be stored and distributed in a versatile Inert Tank (IT) connected with a hydrogen station (Fuel Cells) for refuelling vehicles, placed outside any buildings or installed directly in existing and new vehicles, while it excess could be sold to other external users. In the end, the green H₂ production can also be performed with chemical reactions using a specific device, called Sedes H-POT (little and big), that can produce water vapour and high-value metallic compounds for industrial sectors starting from water, commonly used metals and specific molecules (called here XY Sedes H molecules) [4].  The Sedes H's purpose is aimed at a new integrated concept of H₂ low-cost production and could soon represent a great environmental and economic opportunity for human development. This target is well based on the estimated market size for energy production (2031) of 5.866 B and by the fact that in 2027 Sedes H will be listed on the NASDAQ.

Foam in a porous medium is a gas phase within a liquid phase, which is mainly made of thin layers. These thin layers are stabilized by surface adsorption at the gas/liquid interface. Foam injection into oil wells is an effective method to control gas-oil ratio (GOR), especially in heterogeneous and carbonate reservoirs with natural fractures that are prone to gas ingress. This method is effective because the foam can act as a barrier to gas passage and thus reduce the gas-to-oil ratio. Foam can be used to improve the condition of the production wells that have high values ​​of gas-oil ratio (GOR) in an oil carbonate reservoir. Foam is injected through perforations that produce large amounts of gas to block the path of gas production and cause more oil to be produced from the rest of the well holes at the same time. The foam compensates for the lack of pressure near the well to calm the water and gas coning in thin oil layers, which is called anti-water and gas coning foam technology.

The behavior of oil wells in salt formations is complex and different from wells drilled in other geological formations due to the unique characteristics of these formations, such as dissolution and sedimentation cycles, changes in salt volume and potential. They show non-linear and complex behaviors due to their low resistance to compressive forces. Salt formations are known as important oil traps, and drilling in these formations and maintaining wells during production are important challenges in drilling engineering. Salt easily dissolves in water and this can cause gradual erosion of the formation and changes in the surface of the earth. The volume of salt changes with temperature and pressure changes. This can cause changes in phase and mobility in the formation and wellbore. Salt can act as an electrical conductor and affect the electrochemical activity in and around the well. Salt formations have little resistance to compressive forces due to their crystalline structure. This makes it possible to encounter large holes during drilling. Salt formations show nonlinear behaviors. For example, due to changes in temperature or pressure, the formation may contract or expand. This makes it difficult to predict well behavior over time.

The structure of a geological formation is determined by several factors that can be divided into two main groups: internal factors and external factors. Internal factors include the composition of rocks, type of sediment, thickness and arrangement of layers, while external factors include erosion, re-deposition (repeating deposition), movement of geological plates and climate changes. These factors interact and contribute to the unique structure of each formation. Different compositions of rocks resist weathering, erosion and other geological processes differently. The type of sediment determines the physical and chemical properties of the formations and in turn affects the processes of deposition, weathering and erosion. The type of sediments forming the formation (such as sand, clay, limestone) affects its structural characteristics, such as density, shell and particle size. Erosion can lead to deformation, reduction of height and even complete removal of formations. In this paper, parameters affecting  the structure of a geological formation will be discussed.

Energy saving has become an important issue due to the limited energy resources and the increasing demands. Many studies have been carried out to improve energy efficiency. In this perspective, the vapor compression cycle (VCC) systems equipped with an ejector as an expansion device are considered to improve the COP by reducing the expansion loss and compressor work. This paper presents simulation results on the performance of the ejector vapor compression cycle (EVCC) using low-GWP refrigerants. The vapor compression cycle system equipped with an ejector as an expansion device is considered to improve the coefficient of performance (COP) by reducing expansion losses and compressor work. The EVCC was simulated using a model based on the conservation of mass, energy, and momentum in the ejector. Based on the simulation results, the COP improvement of the EVCC was analyzed under varying operating conditions and compared with that of the conventional vapor compression cycle (VCC). The EVCC showed greater performance improvements with increasing temperature differences between the condenser and evaporator for all refrigerants.

In geology, the pressure of a formation means the fluid pressure inside the pores of a geological formation, usually known as pore pressure. This pressure in the formation can be lower or higher than the hydrostatic. Pore ​​pressure is determined based on factors such as depth, temperature and type of sediments of the formation and can affect the behavior of the formation. The pressure of the formation is caused by the weight of fluids inside the underground permeable rocks. By increasing depth, the pressure will be increased. The water accumulated inside the porous and permeable formations gets more pressure with increasing depth, just like the pressure increases with increasing water depth in the seas. As the depth increases, the vertical distance increases the fluid pressure. The formation pressure is directly related to the subsidence rate of the bed of the sedimentary basin as well as the rapid sedimentation rate of particles in it. If the bottom of the sedimentary basin has continuous subsidence due to tectonic factors and the rate of sedimentation in such a basin is fast, it causes a large thickness of sediments to form in a short period of time. In this case, increasing the weight of the upper layers to the lower layers causes an increase in the formation pressure.

Faults play a significant dual role in oil and gas reservoirs. Faults cause the migration and mixing of oil from separate horizons in one field, and also cause secondary porosity in the rocks and the release of hydrocarbons from the system. Fault plays a fundamental role in the formation of oil traps indirectly. It may block and prevent the fluid in one  direction, as well as transfer and providing a permeable passage for the fluid in  another direction in oil and gas reservoirs. Different types of faults such as normal fault, reverse fault, straight fault, slip fault and thrust fault can cause the formation of oil trap. Identification the  faults  in hydrocarbon reservoirs are very important for  enhanced oil recovery and development of oil fields. Correct description and drawing of faults can facilitate development projects in the oil industry. In this paper, the role of geological faults in oil and gas reservoirs will be discussed. 

Folding is a geological process in which the rock layers of the earth's crust are bent and deformed under enormous tectonic pressures, without significant fracture occurring. This phenomenon usually occurs as a result of the movement of tectonic plates and creates structures such as mountains, valleys, and domes. Folding shows the flexibility of rocks in certain conditions and tells a part of the history of the earth's evolution. Folding causes the formation of anticlines that can form good oil reservoirs. But folds, like faults, can cause hydrocarbon migration. Understanding the geometry and pattern of folds in thrust belts is an important part of the knowledge required in the exploration of hydrocarbon reserves. In addition, understanding the geometry and pattern of folds helps to better understand the physical aspects of reservoirs and provides a basis for advancing in other fields of reservoir studies. In this paper, the role of geological folds in oil and gas reservoirs will be discussed.